Xenarthrans from Sistema Calera Cave, Mexico, and radiocarbon and stable isotope analyses of the cave fauna
PDF
HTML

Keywords

fossil
megafauna
xenarthrans
cave
Pleistocene
Rancholabrean
radiocarbon dating
carbon isotopic signature
Mexico

How to Cite

McDonald, H. G., Dantas, M. A., Espinasa-Pereña, R., & Espinasa, L. (2026). Xenarthrans from Sistema Calera Cave, Mexico, and radiocarbon and stable isotope analyses of the cave fauna. Revista Mexicana De Ciencias Geológicas, 43(2), 140–160. https://doi.org/10.22201/igc.20072902e.2026.2.1926

Citas en Dimensions Service

Share on

Abstract

Recent investigations at Sistema Calera Cave (21°53’49”N, 98°55’52”W, 103 m a.s.l.), located in the Sierra de El Abra, San Luis Potosí, northeastern Mexico, have established the site as one of exceptional paleontological importance due to its remarkably diverse assemblage of fossilized vertebrate remains. Given the underwater depositional context, which likely contributed to collagen degradation, radiocarbon dating was performed on bioapatite, with results converted to collagen-equivalent values and calibrated to calendar years. Radiocarbon dates place specimens of Bison sp. (8423–8549 cal yr BP), Tremarctos cf. floridanus (12686–12752 cal yr BP), Glyptotherium cylindricum (12986–13166 cal yr BP), Canis dirus (13574–13666 cal yr BP), Mammuthus columbi (13729–13887 cal yr BP), Eremotherium laurillardi (23784–24065 cal yr BP), and Smilodon fatalis (31027–31178 cal yr BP) within the Late Rancholabrean. The range of dates indicates the assemblage represents a time-averaged fauna. The carbon isotopic signature (δ13C) suggests three main types of vegetation animals fed on: low-density forests, an arboreal savanna, and an ecotone between arboreal savanna to open savanna. Of 775 cataloged specimens, 37 are assigned to Xenarthra, including three sloth genera (Eremotherium, Nothrotheriops, and a megalonychid cf. Nohochichak) and one glyptodont (Glyptotherium). The co-occurrence of Nothrotheriops, typically associated with arid environments, with Eremotherium and Glyptotherium, which are linked to tropical and mixed grassland habitats, presents an unusual ecological association. Potential explanations for this uncommon association are discussed.

https://doi.org/10.22201/igc.20072902e.2026.2.1926
PDF
HTML

References

Ameghino, F. (1889). Contribución al conocimiento de los mamíferos fósiles de la República Argentina. Actas de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Córdoba, 6, 1e1027. doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.121288

Ameghino, F. 1920. Sur les édentés fossiles de l' Argentine. Examen critique, révision et correction de l' ouvrage de M. R. Lydekker "The exinct edentates of Argentina", etc. (Ouvrage à démiinédite avec des notes additionelles sur quelques ongulés et carnassiers). In: A.J. Torcelli (Ed.) Obras Completas y Correspondencia Científica de Florentino Ameghino, Taller de Impresiones Oficiales del Gobierno de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, 11: 447– 909.

Anyonge, W., & Roman, C. (2006). New body mass estimates for Canis dirus, the extinct Pleistocene dire wolf. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 26(1), 209–212. doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[209:nbmefc]2.0.co;2

Bell, C. J., Lundelius Jr., E. L., Barnosky, A. D., Graham, R. W., Lindsey, E. H., Ruez, Jr., D. R., Semken Jr., H. A., Webb, S. D., & Zakrzewski, R. J. (2004). The Blancan, Irvingtonian and Rancholabrean Mammal Ages. Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic Mammals of North America: Biostratigraphy and Geochronology. Columbia University Press, New York, 232-314.

Bocherens, H., Koch, P. L., Mariotti, A., Geraards, D., & Jaeger, J. J. (1996). Isotopic biogeochemistry (13C, 18O) of mammalian enamel from African Pleistocene hominid sites. Palaios, 11, 306–318. doi.org/10.2307/3515241

Bonaparte, C. L. (1850). Conspectus systematis Mastozoologiae. Nuovi Annali delle Scienze Naturali, 3, 472-475.

Bonet, F. (1952). La facies urgoniana del Cretácico Medio de la región de Tampico. Boletín Asociación Mexicana Geólogos Petroleros, 4(5-6), 153– 262.

Bonet, F. (1963). Biostratigraphic notes on the Cretaceous of eastern Mexico. Corpus Christi Geological Society Annual Field Trip Guidebook, Peregrina Canyon and Sierra de El Abra, Mexico, 36–48.

Bonilla Díaz, C. (2018). Paleoecología del Pleistoceno tardío en la Cueva La Presita (San Luis Potosí, México) [Tesis de Licenciatura]. Mexico, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla.

Brandoni, D. & Vezzosi, R. I. (2019). Nothrotheriops sp. (Mammalia, Xenarthra) from the Late Pleistocene of Argentina: implications for the dispersion of ground sloths during the Great American Biotic Interchange. Boreas, 48, 879–890. doi.org/10.1111/bor.12401

Bravo-Cuevas, V. M., Ortiz-Caballero, E. & Cabral-Perdomo, M. A. (2009). Gliptodontes (Xenarthra, Glyptodontidae) del Pleistoceno Tardıo (Rancholabreano) de Hidalgo. Centro de Mexico. Boletin de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 61, 267–276. doi.org/10.18268/bsgm2009v61n2a14

Bregman, R. (1988). Forms of seed dispersal in Cactaceae. Acta Botanica Neerlandica, 37(3), 395–402. doi.org/10.1111/j.1438-8677.1988.tb02148.x

Brown, B. (1912). Brachyostracon, a new genus of glyptodont from Mexico. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 31, 167–177.

Burmeister, H. (1879). Description physique de la République Argentine. Tome III. Mammifères fossiles. Buenos Aires.

Carbot-Chanona, G., Gómez-Pérez, L. E. & Coutiño-José, M. A. (2022). A new specimen of Eremotherium laurillardi (Xenarthra, Megatheriidae) from the Late Pleistocene of Chiapas, and comments about the distribution of the species in Mexico. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 74(2), 1–12. doi.org/10.18268/bsgm2022v74n2a070322

Carlini, A. A., Carrillo-Briceño, J. D., Jaimes, A., Aguilera, O., Zurita, A. E., Iriarte, J., & Sánchez-Villagra, M. R. (2022). Damaged glyptodontid skulls from Late Pleistocene sites of northwestern Venezuela: evidence of hunting by humans?. Swiss Journal of Palaeontology, 141(1), 11. doi.org/10.1186/s13358-022-00253-3

Carranza-Castañeda, O. & Miller, W. E. (1987). Rediscovered type specimens and other important published Pleistocene mammalian fossils from Central Mexico. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 7(3), 335–341. doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1987.10011664

Carrillo-Bravo, J. (1971). La plataforma Valles-San Luis Potosí: Boletín Asociación Mexicana de Geólogos Petroleros, 23(1-6), 1–113.

Cartelle, C. & De Iuliis, G. (1995). Eremotherium laurillardi: the Panamerican late Pleistocene megatheriid sloth. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 15(4), 830–841. doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1995.10011265

Cerling, T. E. & Harris, J. M. (1999). Carbon isotope fractionation between diet and bioapatite in ungulate mammals and implications for ecological and paleoecological studies. Oecologia, 120, 347–363. doi.org/10.1007/s004420050868

Cerling, T. E., Harris, J. M., Hart, J. A., Kaleme, P., Klingel, H., Leakey, M. G., Levin, N. E., Lewison, R. L., & Passey, B. H. (2008). Stable isotope ecology of the common hippopotamus. Journal of Zoology, 276(2), 204–212. doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00450.x

Cherkinsky, A. (2009). Can We Get a Good Radiocarbon Age from “Bad Bone”? Determining the Reliability of Radiocarbon Age from Bioapatite. Radiocarbon, 51(2), 647–655. doi.org/10.2458/azu_js_rc.51.3523

Christiansen, P., & Harris, J. M. (2005). Body size of Smilodon (Mammalia: Felidae). Journal of Morphology, 266(3), 369–384. doi.org/10.1002/jmor.10384

Cisneros, J. C. (2005). New Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from El Salvador. Revista Brasileira de Paleontologia, (8), 239–255. doi.org/10.4072/rbp.2005.3.09

Coplen, T. B. (1994). Reporting of stable hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen isotopic abundances. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 66(2), 273–276. https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199466020273

Cuadrelli, F., Zurita, A. E., Toriño, P., Miño-Boilini, Á. R., Rodríguez-Bualó, S., Perea, D. & Acuña Suárez, G.E. (2018). Late Pleistocene Glyptodontinae (Mammalia, Xenarthra, Glyptodontidae) from southern South America: a comprehensive review. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 38(5), p.e1525390. doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2018.1525390

Cuadrelli, F., Escamilla, J., Zurita, A., Gillette, D. D. & Dávila, L.S. (2023). Glyptotherium cylindricum (Cingulata, Glyptodontidae) from the Late Pleistocene of Guatemala: the most complete record of Glyptodontinae from Central America. Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology, 47(3), 336–347. doi.org/10.1080/03115518.2023.2242440

Cuatáparo, J. N. & Ramirez S. (1875). Descripción de un mamífero fósil de especie desconocida, perteneciente al género Glyptodon, encontrado en las capas posterciarias de Tequixquiac, en el Distrito de Zumpango. Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística Boletín, 2, 354–362.

Dantas, M. A. T., & Cherkinsky, A. (2023). Interrelation of radiocarbon ages from bone fractions in the Brazilian Intertropical Region. Quaternary Research, 115, 202–206. doi.org/10.1017/qua.2023.19

Dantas, M. A. T., Campbell, S. C., & McDonald, H. G. (2023). Paleoecological inferences about the Late Quaternary giant sloths. Journal of Mammalian Evolution, 30(4), 891–905. doi.org/10.1007/s10914-023-09681-5

De Iuliis, G., McDonald, H.G., Stanchly, N., Spenard, J., & Powis. T. G. (2015). Nothrotheriops shastensis (Sinclair, 1905) from Actun Lake: First record of Nothrotheridae (Mammalia, Xenarthra, Pilosa) from Belize. Ameghiniana, 52(1), 153-171. doi.org/10.5710/amgh.05.11.2014.2821

Delsuc, F., Catzeflis, F. M., Stanhope, M. J., & Douzery, E. J. P. (2001). The evolution of armadillos, anteaters and sloths depicted by nuclear and mitochondrial phylogenies: implications for the status of the enigmatic fossil Eurotamandua. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 268, 1605–1615.

Domingo, L., Prado, J. L., & Alberdi, M. T. (2012). The effect of paleoecology and paleobiogeography on stable isotopes of Quaternary mammals from South America. Quaternary Science Reviews, 55, 103–113. doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.08.017

Elliot, W. R. (2018). The Astyanax Caves of Mexico, Cavefishes of Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, and Guerrero. Association for Mexican Cave Studies Bulletin, 26.

Espinasa, L., & Espinasa, M. (2015). Hydrogeology of caves in the Sierra de El Abra Region. Chapter 2, In: A. C., Keene, M., Yoshizawa, & S. E., McGaugh (eds.), Biology and Evolution of the Mexican Cavefish (pp. 41–58). Amsterdam, Academic Press (Elsevier). doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802148-4.00002-5

Espinasa, L., & Espinasa, J. (2025). Crypt of the Megafauna. Association for Mexican Cave Studies. Bulletin, 27.

Espinasa-Pereña, R., Espinasa-Diamant, S., Diamant, R., McDonald, H. G., Soriano, J. A., & Espinasa, L. (2024). Discovery of a Pleistocene megafaunal assemblage in a cave in Sierra de El Abra, San Luis Potosí, Mexico. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas, 41(3), 206–220. doi.org/10.22201/igc.20072902e.2024.3.1828

Ferrusquia-Villafranca, I., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Martinez-Hernandez, E., Gama-Castro, J., Ruiz-Gonzalez, J., Polaco, O. J., & Johnson, E. (2010). Pleistocene mammals of Mexico: A critical review of regional chronofaunas, climate change response and biogeographic provinciality. Quaternary International, 217, 53–104. doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2009.11.036

Ferrusquía-Villafranca, I., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Johnson, E., Ruiz-González, J., Martínez-Hernández, E., Gama-Castro, J., de Anda-Hurtado, P., & Polaco, O. J. (2017). Quaternary Mammals, People, and Climate Change: A View from Southern North America. In G. G. Monks, (ed.), Climate Change and Human Responses: A Zooarchaeological Perspective. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology (27–67). New York, Springer. doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1106-5_3

Fish, J. (2004). Karst hydrology of the Sierra de El Abra, México. Association for Mexican Cave Studies. Bulletin, 14.

Flower, W. H. (1883). On the arrangement of the orders and families of existing Mammalia. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1883, 178–186.

Fricke, H. C., Rogers, R. R., Eberth, D. A., & Fiorillo, A. R. (2007). Stable isotope geochemistry of bonebed fossils: reconstructing paleoenvironments, paleoecology, and paleobiology. In Bonebeds: genesis, analysis, and paleobiological significance (pp. 437–490). University of Chicago Press Chicago. doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226723730.003.0008

Gervais, M. P. (1855). Recherches sur les mammifères fossiles de l’Amérique du Sud. In F., de Castelnau (Ed.), Zoologie de l’Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud de Rio de Janeiro à Lima, et de Lima au Para (pp. 1–63). Exécuté par ordre du Gouvernement français pendant les années 1843 à 1847 sous la direction du comte Francis de Castelnau.

Gillette, D. D., & Ray C. E. (1981). Glyptodonts of North America. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology, 40, 1–255. doi.org/10.5479/si.00810266.40.1

Godínez-Álvarez, H. (2004). Pollination and seed dispersal by lizards: a review. Revista chilena de historia natural, 77(3), 569–577. doi.org/10.4067/s0716-078x2004000300015

Godínez-Alvarez, H., & Valiente-Banuet, A. (2000). Fruit-Feeding Behavior of the Bats Leptonycteris curasoae and Choeronycteris mexicana in Flight Cage Experiments: Consequences for Dispersal of Columnar Cactus Seeds1. Biotropica, 32(3), 552–556. doi.org/10.1646/0006-3606(2000)032[0552:ffbotb]2.0.co;2

Godínez-Alvarez, H., Valiente-Banuet, A., & Rojas-Martínez, A. (2002). The role of seed dispersers in the population dynamics of the columnar cactus Neobuxbaumia tetetzo. Ecology, 83(9), 2617–2629. doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[2617:trosdi]2.0.co;2

Gomes, V. G. N., Quirino, Z. G. M., & Araujo, H. F. P. (2014). Frugivory and seed dispersal by birds in Cereus jamacaru DC. ssp. jamacaru (Cactaceae) in the Caatinga of Northeastern Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 74, 32–40. doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.15312

Gomes, V. G. N., Meiado, M. V., Quirino, Z. G. M., & Machado, I. C. (2016). Seed removal by lizards and effect of gut passage on germination in a columnar cactus of the Caatinga, a tropical dry forest in Brazil. Journal of Arid Environments, 135, 85–89. doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.08.013

Gray, J. E. (1821). On the natural arrangement of vertebrose animals. The London Medical Repository, 15, 296–310.

Hansen, R. M. (1978). Shasta ground sloth food habits, Rampart Cave, Arizona. Paleobiology, 4, 302–319. doi.org/10.1017/s0094837300006011

Hoffstetter, R. (1954). Les gravigrades (Édentés, Xénarthres) des caverns de Lagoa Santa. Annales des Sciences Naturelle, Zoologie 11, 741–764.

Illiger, C. (1811). Prodromus Systematics Mammalium et Avium Additis Terminis Zoographicis Utriusque Cassis. Salfeld, Berlín, 301 p.

Jiménez Hidalgo, E., Pacheco Castro, A., Cruz, J. A., & Guerrero Arenas, R. (2024). Importancia, técnicas de recolecta y procesos curatoriales de pequeños vertebrados e invertebrados continentales fósiles. Paleontología Mexicana, 13(2), 141–155. doi.org/10.22201/igl.05437652e.2024.13.2.383

Jiménez-Moreno, F. J., Morales-Tehuitzitl, E. D., Carbot-Chanona, G., & Velázquez-Castro, J. (2022). A mathematical model to calculate the population of Mammuthus columbi (Mammalia, Proboscidea, Elephantidae) during the Late Pleistocene in the Valsequillo Basin, Puebla, Mexico. Historical Biology, 34(4), 750–758. doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2021.1946530

Keeling, C. D., Mook, W. G., & Tans, P. P. (1979). Recent trends in the 13C/12C ratio of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Nature, 277, 121–123. https://doi.org/10.1038/277121a0

Kingston, J. D., & Harrison, T. (2007). Isotopic dietary reconstructions of Pliocene herbivores at Laetoli: Implications for early hominin paleoecology. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 243(3-4), 272–306. doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.08.002

Lucas, S. G. (2008). Pleistocene mammals from Yeroconte Honduras. In Neogene Mammals. Lucas, S.G. (ed.), New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 44, 403–408.

Lucas, S. G. (2014). Late Pleistocene mammals from El Hatillo, Panama. Revista geológica de América central, 50, 139–151. doi.org/10.15517/rgac.v0i50.15120

Lund, P. W. (1842). Blik paa Brasiliens Dyreverden før sidste Jordomvæltning. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter, 9, 137–208.

Magoulick, K. M., Saupe, E. E., Farnsworth, A., Valdes, P. J., & Marshall, C. R. (2025). Evaluating migration hypotheses for the extinct Glyptotherium using ecological niche modeling. Ecography, p.e07499. doi.org/10.1111/ecog.07499

McDonald, H. G. (2002). Fossil Xenarthra of Mexico: A Review. In M. Montellano Ballesteros, & Arroyo J., Cabrales (eds.). Avances en los estudios paleomastozoológicos en México (pp. 227-248). Serie Arqueología, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.

McDonald, H. G. (2003). Sloth remains from North American caves and associated karst features. In B.W. Schubert, J.I. Mead & R.W. Graham (eds.). Ice Age Cave Faunas of North America (pp. 1-16). Indiana University Press and Denver Museum of Nature and Science.

McDonald, H. G. (2022). Paleoecology of the extinct Shasta ground sloth, Nothrotheriops shastensis, (Xenarthra, Nothrotheriidae): The physical environment. Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, 88, 33–43.

McDonald, H. G., & Jefferson. G.T. (2008). Distribution and habitat of Nothrotheriops (Xenarthra, Nothrotheridae) in the Pleistocene of North America. In X. Wang and L. G. Barnes (eds.), Geology and Vertebrate Paleontology of Western and Southern North America, Contributions in Honor of David P. Whistler. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Science Series, 41, 313–331.

McDonald, H. G., Chatters, J. C., & Gaudin T. J. (2017). A new genus of megalonychid ground sloth (Mammalia, Xenarthra) from the late Pleistocene of Quintana Roo, Mexico. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 37(3), e1307206. doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2017.1307206

McDonald, H. G., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Alarcón-Durán, I., & Espinosa-Martínez, D. V. (2020). First record of Meizonyx salvadorensis (Mammalia: Xenarthra: Pilosa) from the late Pleistocene of Mexico and its evolutionary implications. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 18(22), 1829–1851. doi.org/10.1080/14772019.2020.1842816

Mitchell, R. W., Russell, W. H., & Elliot, W. R. (1977). Mexican Eyeless Characin Fishes, Genus Astyanax: Environment, Distribution, and Evolution (12). The Museum, Texas Tech University Special Publications.

Mysterud, A., Langvatn, R., Yoccoz, N. G., & Chr, N. (2001). Plant phenology, migration and geographical variation in body weight of a large herbivore: the effect of a variable topography. Journal of Animal Ecology, 70(6), 915–923. doi.org/10.1046/j.0021-8790.2001.00559.x

Oliveira, E. V., Porpino, K. O., & Barreto, A. L. M. F. (2010). On the presence of Glyptotherium in the Late Pleistocene of Northeasthern Brazil, and the status of ‘Glyptodon’ and ‘Chlamydotherium’ paleobiogeographic implications. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie – Abhandlungen, 258, 353–363. doi.org/10.1127/0077-7749/2010/0116

Omena, É. C., Silva, J. L. L. D., Sial, A. N., Cherkinsky, A., & Dantas, M. A. T. (2021). Late Pleistocene meso-megaherbivores from Brazilian Intertropical Region: isotopic diet (δ13C), niche differentiation, guilds and paleoenvironmental reconstruction (δ13C, δ18O). Historical Biology, 33(10), 2299–2304. doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2020.1789977

Osborn, H. F. (1903). Glyptotherium texanum: A new glyptodont from the Lower Pleistocene of Texas. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 19, 491–494.

Pérez-Crespo, V. A., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Alva-Valdivia, L. M., Morales-Puente, P., & Cienfuegos-Alvarado, E. (2012). Diet and habitat definitions for Mexican glyptodonts from Cedral (San Luis Potosí, México) based on stable isotope analysis. Geological Magazine, 149(1), 153–157. doi.org/10.1017/s0016756811000951

Pérez-Crespo, V. A., Carbot-Chanona, G., Morales-Puente, P., Cienfuegos-Alvarado, E., & Otero, F. J. (2015) Paleoambiente de la Depresión Central de Chiapas, con base en isótopos estables de carbono y oxígeno. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geologicas, 32(2), 273–282.

Phillips, D. L. (2012). Converting isotope values to diet composition: the use of mixing models. Journal of Mammology, 93(2), 342–352. doi.org/10.1644/11-mamm-s-158.1

Prevosti, F. J., & Vizcaíno, S. F. (2006). Paleoecology of the large carnivore guild from the Late Pleistocene of Argentina. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 51(3), 407–422.

Ramírez-Cruz, G. A. & Montellano-Ballesteros, M. (2014). Two new glyptodont records (Mammalia: Cingulata) from the late Pleistocene of Tamaulipas and Tlaxcala, Mexico: implications for the taxonomy of the genus Glyptotherium. The Southwestern Naturalist, 59(4), 522–530. doi.org/10.1894/jkf-45.1

Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Blackwell, P. G., Ramsey, C. B., Buck, C. E., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Friedrich, M. & Grootes, P. M. (2013). IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon, 55(4), 1869-1887. doi.org/10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947

Reimer, P. J., Austin, W. E., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Blackwell, P. G., Ramsey, C. B., Butzin, M., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Friedrich, M., & Grootes, P.M. (2020). The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere radiocarbon age calibration curve (0–55 cal kBP). Radiocarbon, 62(4), 725–757. doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2020.41

Sagebiel, J. C. (2022). Xenarthrans from the Nueces River fauna, Upper Pleistocene of Nueces County, Texas. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 88, 225–232.

Sahagún-Sánchez, F. J., & De-Nova, J. A. (2020). Multi-taxonomic survey in the Sierra del Abra Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve. Biota Neotropica, 21(1), e20201050.

Sánchez Salinas, M., Jiménez Hidalgo, E. & Castañeda Posadas, C. (2016). Mamíferos fósiles del Pleistoceno tardío (Rancholabreano) de San Mateo Huexoyucán, Tlaxcala, México. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 68, 497–514. doi.org/10.18268/bsgm2016v68n3a7

Servicio Geológico Mexicano (2008). Carta Geológico-Minera Álvaro Obregón F14-D11, Estado de San Luis Potosí (Escala 1:50,000). Pachuca, Hidalgo, México: Secretaría de Economía.

Schubert, B. W., Chatters, J. C., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Samuels, J. X., Soibelzon, L. H., Prevosti, F. J., Widga, C., Nava, A., Rissolo, D., & Erreguerena, P. L. (2019). Yucatán carnivorans shed light on the Great American Biotic Interchange. Biology Letters, 15(5), 20190148. doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0148

Simpson, G. G. (1929). Pleistocene mammalian fauna of the Seminole Field, Pinellas County, Florida. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 56, 561–599.

Sinclair, W. J. (1905). New mammalia from the Quaternary caves of California. University of California Publications, Bulletin of the Department of Geological Sciences, 4(7), 145–161.

Soibelzon, E., Zurita, A. E., & Carlini, A. A. (2006). Glyptodon munizi Ameghino (Mammalia, Cingulata, Glyptodontidae): redescripción y anatomía. Ameghiniana, 43(2), 377e384.

Spillmann, F. (1948). Beiträge zur Kenntnis eines neuen gravigraden Riesensteppentieres (Eremotherium carolinense gen. et sp. nov.), seines Lebensraumes und seiner Lebensweise. Palaeobiologica, 8, 231–279.

Stinnesbeck, S. R., Frey, E., Olguín, J. A., Stinnesbeck, W., Zell, P., Mallison, H., González González, A., Aceves Núñez, E., Velázquez Morlet, A., Terrazas Mata, A. & Benavente Sanvicente, M. (2017). Xibalbaonyx oviceps, a new megalonychid ground sloth (Folivora, Xenarthra) from the Late Pleistocene of the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, and its paleobiogeographic significance. PalZ, 91, 245–271. doi.org/10.1007/s12542-017-0349-5

Tejada-Lara, J.V., MacFadden, B.J., Bermudez, L., Rojas, G., Salas-Gismondi, R., & Flynn, J.J. (2018). Body mass predicts isotope enrichment in herbivorous mammals. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 285(1881), p.20181020. doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.1020

Valerio, A. L., Laurito, C.A., & Gomez, L. D. (2005). Un Gliptodonte (Xenarthra, Cingulata) de la Localidad de Chachagua, Provincia de Alajuela, Costa Rica. Revista Geológica de America Central, 32, 61–63. doi.org/10.15517/rgac.v0i32.4245

Varela, L., Tambusso, P. S., McDonald, H. G., Vezzosi, R. I., & Fariña, R. A. (2023). Occurrence of the ground sloth Nothrotheriops (Xenarthra, Folivora) in the Late Pleistocene of Uruguay: new information on its dietary and habitat preferences based on stable isotope analysis. Journal of Mammalian Evolution, 30, 561–576. doi.org/10.1007/s10914-023-09660-w

Vogel, J. S., Southon, J. R., Nelson, D. E., & Brown, T. A. (1984). Performance of catalytically condensed carbon for use in accelerator mass spectrometry. Nuclear Instruments & Methods, B5, 289–293. doi.org/10.1016/0168-583x(84)90529-9

Webb, S. D. (1978). A history of savanna vertebrates in the New World. Part II: South America and the Great Interchange. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 9, 393–426.

Webb, S. D., & Perrigo, S. C. (1984). Late Cenozoic vertebrates from Honduras and El Salvador. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 4, 237–254. doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1984.10012006

Zurita, A. E., Carlini, A. A., Gillette, D., & Sánchez, R. (2011). Late Pliocene Glyptodontinae (Xenarthra, Cingulata, Glyptodontidae) of South and North America: morphology and paleobiogeographical implications in the GABI. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 31(2-3), 178–185. doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2011.02.001

Zurita, A. E., Gillette, D. D., Cuadrelli, F., & Carlini, A. A. (2018). A tale of two clades: comparative study of Glyptodon Owen and Glyptotherium Osborn (Xenarthra, Cingulata, Glyptodontidae). Geobios, 51(3), 247–258. doi.org/10.1016/j.geobios.2018.04.004

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Copyright (c) 2026 H. Gregory McDonald, Mário A.T. Dantas, Ramón Espinasa-Pereña, Luis Espinasa

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.